HISTORY OF NAMIBIA

The history of Namibia has passed through several distinct stages, and Namibia has really only existed as a modern state since South Africa relinquished control of the country in 1989. Early in the 20th century, Namibia was a German colony (German South West Africa). After the 1st World War, it became a League of Nations-administered territory. Following the 2nd World War, the United Nations mandated control of the country to South Africa when as South-West Africa it was administered by a South African-appointed administrator-general.

Pre-colonial history

There is a high density of rock paintings in Namibia. The most famous archaeological site is the Apollo 11 Cave, containing rock paintings dating back at least 25,000 years.

Bushmen (also called San) are generally assumed to have been the earliest inhabitants of the region comprising today’s Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. The bushmen were hunters and gatherers with a nomadic lifestyle. The most important part of their diet consisted of fruits, nuts and roots, but they also hunted different kinds of antelopes. Over time, many different ethnic groups of immigrants settled in Namibia.

The far north – The Owambo and Kavango

The Owambo, and the smaller and closely related group Kavango, lived in northern Namibia and southern Angola. Being settled people they had an economy based on farming, cattle and fishing, but they also produced metal goods. Both groups belonged to the Bantu nation. They rarely ventured south to the central parts of the country, since the conditions there did not suit their farming way of life, but traded extensively their knives and agricultural implements.

Khoisan immigration – The Nama and Damara

Until about 2,000 years ago the original hunters and gatherers of the San people were the only inhabitants in Namibia. At this time the Nama (also known as Namaqua, Khoi-Khoi or Hottentot) settled around the Orange River in the south on the border between Namibia and South Africa where they kept herds of sheep and goats.

Both the San and the Nama were Khoisan peoples, and spoke languages from the Khoisan language group.

In the 9th century Damara (also known as Bergdama or Berg Damara), another Khoisan group, entered Namibia. It is unclear where they came from, but they settled in the grasslands in central Namibia, known as Damaraland.

Bantu immigration – The Herero

During the 17th century the Herero, a pastoral, nomadic people keeping cattle, moved into Namibia. They came from the east African lakes and entered Namibia from the northwest. First they resided in Kaokoland, but in the middle of the 19th century some tribes moved farther south and into Damaraland. A number of tribes remained in Kaokoland: these were the Himba people, who are still there today. The Herero were said to have enslaved certain groups and displaced others such as the Bushmen to marginal areas unsuitable for their way of life.

The Oorlans

In the 19th century white farmers, mostly Boers, moved farther northwards pushing the indigenous Khoisan peoples, who put up a fierce resistance, across the Orange River. Known as Oorlans, they adopted Boer customs and some spoke a language similar to Afrikaans. Armed with guns, the Oorlans caused instability as more and more came to settle in Namaqualand, and eventually conflict arose between them and the Nama. Under the leadership of Jonker Afrikaner, the Oorlans used their superior weapons to take control of the best grazing land. In the 1830s Jonker Afrikaner concluded an agreement with the Nama chief Oaseb whereby the Oorlan would protect the central grasslands of Namibia from the Herero who were then pushing southwards. In return Jonker Afrikaner was recognised as overlord, received tribute from the Nama and settled at what today is Windhoek. The Afrikaners soon came into conflict with the Herero who entered Damaraland from the south at about the same time as the Afrikaner started to expand farther north from Namaqualand. Both the Herero and the Afrikaner wanted to use the grasslands of Damaraland for their herds. This resulted in warfare between the Herero and the Oorlans as well as between the two of them and the Damara, who were the original inhabitants of the area. The Damara were displaced by the fighting and many were killed. With their horses and guns, the Afrikaners proved to be militarily superior and forced the Herero to give them cattle as tribute.

Baster immigration

The last group to arrive in Namibia before the Europeans were the Basters – descendants of Boer men and African women (mostly Nama). Being Calvinist and Afrikaans-speaking, they considered themselves to be culturally more « white » than « black. » As with the Oorlans, they were forced northwards by the expansion of white settlers when, in 1868, a group of about 90 families crossed the Orange River into Namibia. The Basters settled in central Namibia, where they founded the city Rehoboth. In 1872 they founded the « Free Republic of Rehoboth » and adopted a constitution stating that the nation should be led by a « Kaptein » directly elected by the people, and that there should be a small parliament, or Volkraad, consisting of three directly-elected citizens.

European influence and colonisation

The first European to set foot on Namibian soil was the Portuguese Diogo Cão in 1485, who stopped briefly on the Skeleton Coast. The next was also a Portuguese, Bartholomeu Diaz, who stopped at what today is Walvis Bay and Lüderitz. In 1793 the Dutch authority in the Cape decided to take control of Walvis Bay. When the United Kingdom took control of the Cape Colony in 1797, they also took over Walvis Bay.

One of the first European groups to show interest in Namibia were the missionaries. In 1805 the London Missionary Society began working in Namibia, moving north from the Cape Colony. In 1811 they founded the town Bethanie in southern Namibia, where they built a church, which today is Namibia’s oldest building.

In the 1840s the German Rhenish Mission Society started working in Namibia and co-operating with the London Missionary Society. It was not until the 19th century, during the « Scramble for Africa, » that Germany and Great Britain became seriously interested in Namibia. In 1878, Britain annexed Walvis Bay to preempt German ambitions. In 1883, Adolf Lüderitz bought Angra Pequeña from the Nama chief Joseph Fredericks, paying 10,000 Reichmark and 260 guns, and renamed it Lüderitz. Fearing British annexation, he persuaded Germany to claim it, and in 1884 Bismarck declared it a German colony.

German South-West Africa (1884-1915)

Even before Germany claimed South West Africa, German troops had tried to occupy the area. Conflicts with the native tribes, especially the Namaqua led by Hendrik Witbooi, ensued. Witbooi signed a « protection treaty » with the Germans in 1894, but pockets of rebellion remained. Theodor Leutwein, appointed governor, tried to avoid bloodshed, but rebellion was eventually crushed by the elite Schutztruppe. By 1910, 13,000 Germans had settled there, largely due to the diamond discovery in 1908. Relations between settlers and natives deteriorated due to land appropriations and forced labor.

The Herero and Namaqua wars

In 1904, local rebellions escalated into the Herero and Namaqua Wars. Initially led by Samuel Maharero, the Herero had the upper hand. The Namaqua under Witbooi also joined. Germany sent reinforcements and eventually crushed the rebellion. Von Trotha ordered the Herero to leave the country or be killed, forcing them into the Kalahari where many died of thirst. This genocide killed approximately 65,000 Herero and 10,000 Namaqua.

South African rule 1915-1966

In 1915, during WWI, South Africa occupied the German colony. In 1920, under a League of Nations mandate, South Africa gained full administrative power. After WWII, South Africa refused to cede control to a UN Trusteeship. Pressure mounted during the 1960s as other African nations gained independence. In 1966, the UN General Assembly revoked South Africa’s mandate.

The struggle for independence 1966-1990

In 1966, SWAPO began guerrilla attacks. After Angola’s independence in 1975, SWAPO used its territory as a base. In 1971, the International Court of Justice declared South Africa’s occupation illegal.

International pressure for independence

In 1977, the Western Contact Group worked on a UN plan for Namibian elections and independence (UNSCR 435). South Africa initially agreed but held its own elections in 1978, boycotted by SWAPO. Negotiations continued, focusing on election supervision.

Negotiations and transition

UN commissioners for Namibia were appointed, but South Africa refused to recognize them. Negotiations continued with UN Commissioner Martti Ahtisaari, leading to agreements in 1988 for Cuban troop withdrawal from Angola and South African withdrawal from Namibia. In 1989, a UN observer mission (UNTAG) began. Despite tensions, elections were held in 1989 with SWAPO winning 57% of the vote.

Independence

In 1990, Namibia adopted a constitution, and Sam Nujoma became the first president. Walvis Bay was transferred from South Africa in 1994.

Post-independence

Namibia has faced challenges, including constitutional amendments allowing Nujoma a third term in 1999. He was succeeded by Hifikepunye Pohamba in 2003.

Land reform

Land reform aimed to redistribute land from white farmers to black communities, but progress was slow due to constitutional and economic factors.

Regional involvement

Namibia supported Angola’s MPLA against UNITA, resulting in refugees entering Namibia. Namibia also intervened in the Second Congo War.